Forge getting started for beginners. Blacksmith tools and accessories

The history of blacksmithing is an integral part of metal processing. Cold forging appeared at the very beginning. For many centuries, only this method of making weapons, household items, and jewelry was used. Now the jewelry industry has nothing to do with blacksmiths, but previously everything related to metalworking was related to blacksmithing.

Looking into history books telling about the development of crafts in the Iron and Bronze Ages, you can see photographs of objects made by craftsmen from different parts of the Earth. Blacksmith - this profession is covered in myths and legends. Blacksmithing developed differently in different territories. Only for many centuries the cold method of forging metal was used.

There was also such a profession name as “Khytrets”. This epithet was brought to us by books dating back to 1073. By right, the blacksmithing of those times can be called cunning. The blacksmith had to distinguish metals by color and determine their strength by the shade at the fracture. There was something mystical in the production process itself, when a piece of metal under the influence of strong short blows of a hammer produced a product of extraordinary beauty or a bizarre shape.

With the help of deformation of the metal, which under the influence of strong pressure receives additional density and strength, things necessary in everyday life came out of the hammer of the khytrets, korchey, ironsmith, forger, kerch, and nytrya. The first mentions of this profession can be found in books conveying the myths of ancient Greece. Prometheus was chained to a rock with nails forged by Hephaestus.

The power of blacksmiths is glorified in many literary works of different eras. Blacksmiths were considered healers, healers, and people capable of driving out evil spirits. Based on similar beliefs, Gogol created his blacksmith Vakula. It was rumored that Svarog himself patronized the writhing.

Places in Russia named after blacksmiths

The profession of a blacksmith requires good physical training from the master. It has always been this way. Not every warrior would dare to compete with a blacksmith. Residents of the Pskov region are still called staplers, remembering that the blacksmiths of these places bent horseshoes with their bare hands.

The profession of a blacksmith has had many names over many years of history. One of the most common gave its name to the city of Kerch. This name comes from the word korchev, which means blacksmith. Related terms of those times:

• Korchin – blacksmith;
• Screaming - forged.

There is also a place in Moscow, the name of which indicates its proximity to the blacksmith settlement - this is the Kuznechny Bridge. There was such a settlement in Novgorod. Mentions of large settlements of blacksmiths in cities date back to the 15th-17th centuries. It was in the cities that the development of this profession received more opportunities, thanks to the demand for forged decorations for the facades of large houses, gardens and parks. Just like in Kievan Rus, bladed weapons were made in forges and hardened by fire.

Famous swords

The damask blade has been praised more than once in books and hussar songs. Classics of Russian literature often used the features of swords to cut through stone in their works. The prototypes of magic swords were:

"Excalibur" is the sword of King Arthur, which, while defending the fortress, got stuck in a stone wall. Popular beliefs endow this sword with magical powers. In Russian culture, a similar artifact is the sword “Kladenets”. "Durandale" - Roland's sword and the nameless blade of the Tuscan knight Galliano Guidotti were also able to pierce the stone. These blades gained the ability to cut stone thanks not so much to magical and mystical powers, but to the efforts and skill of the craftsmen who made them.

Galliano Guidotti's sword radically changed the fate of its owner. The books tell us the story that this knight was canonized, although before meeting the Archangel Michael he was not a righteous man. When Mikhail was asked to go to the monastery, the warrior replied that this would happen only after his sword cut the stone. The sword entered the cobblestone and remained there. Modern scientists had the opportunity to study the stone and sword. Their conclusion confirmed that the blade pierced the stone precisely at the times described in the chronicles.

Already in knightly times, blacksmithing had many secrets passed on by craftsmen from generation to generation. One of them was the shape of the workpiece; for the above swords, the basis was a quadrangular rod. Blades belonging to Japanese culture are also widely known. Their names are translated as “sword that cuts grass”, “sword that collects the clouds of paradise”. They are distinguished by their curved shape, which gives the bladed weapons of Japanese craftsmen aerodynamic properties that are not typical for the products of European blacksmiths.

One of the famous swords on display at the Polish Museum in Poznan is the weapon of St. Peter, forged in the 1st century. The blade is famous for the fact that during the arrest of Christ before the crucifixion, Peter managed to cut off the ear of a slave. The sword was donated to the museum by the Bishop of Jordan.

Milestones in the development of blacksmithing

Hand forging is the oldest method of metal processing, which became the ancestor of stamping, forging, casting, pressing, rolling, drawing and sheet stamping. During excavations, archaeologists found metal products dating back to several thousand years BC. These products are made from metals found in nature. The first metal finds by archaeologists date back to the 5th-4th centuries BC. The drawing technique for making products from precious metals was discovered in the Tigris and Euphrates river basins. The products were made in 3 BC. Blacksmithing in Rus' has a longer history. Swords, helmets, chain mail, ax grips, jewelry and other forged items date back to the 18th century. BC.

From the 10th to the 18th centuries AD, new methods appeared in metalworking:

• metal hardening;
• soldering with copper;
• forge welding;
• multilayer manufacturing technique.

XVI century. Under Ivan the Terrible, the Russian army was equipped with forged cannons.
XVII - XVIII - creation of state arms factories in the Urals and Tula.

Peter I in every possible way contributes to the development of the metallurgical industry. Water engines are widely used in military factories. At the turn of the century, in 1800, the technique of hot stamping of similar parts was tried for the first time at the Tula plant. It was used for mass production by blacksmith V.A. Pastukhov.

At the same time, blacksmiths in Vologda specialized in the production of anchors, and in Murom they produced hardware for the construction of the fleet.
XIX century Water drives are being replaced by steam engines, which contributes to the development of shipbuilding and the production of artillery equipment for the navy and army, the production of which required armor, thick plates for carriages, and gun barrels. The weight of the falling hammer was up to 50 tons. Such hydraulic presses expanded the capabilities to forging parts of 250 tons.

Scientific research on the deformation of metals dates back to the same period. Armed with a microscope, P.P. Anosov began to study the structure of steels. During his research in 1841, he established the relationship between the structure and properties of metals. This made it possible to create steel with the necessary technical characteristics. D.K. Chernov conducted a study of the behavior of metals during heating and cooling, which led to the discovery of structural changes. Books with research by Chernov and Anosov still serve as a guide for metallurgists.

Introduction to the craft of a blacksmith through exhibitions

In addition to permanent exhibitions in museums, products of decorative blacksmithing can be seen at exhibitions where not weapons or jewelry are presented, but the work of craftsmen for decorating everyday life. Exhibitions are not just a display of beautiful things, they are the popularization that blacksmithing so needs. For several 10 years, this craft was practically forgotten due to the expanding opportunities in metalworking every year. But other methods are stamping, working on quantity. Only blacksmithing when working with metal will help the master to reveal himself most fully.

The history of the revival of blacksmithing began not so long ago, but the construction of private houses contributes to this. Every owner wants to highlight his home and the surrounding area. Exhibitions of masters allow us to understand how this can be done in an extraordinary and at the same time not pretentious way. For beginning blacksmiths, these exhibitions help them find their own style and learn from more experienced blacksmiths some of the techniques they share by holding master classes directly within the walls where finished decorative products are shown.

Exhibitions of blacksmithing skills held in the Art Kremlin became a good start for beginners, for whom the craftsmen staged a demonstration of the possibilities of changing a piece of metal, turning into fully formed figurines for home decoration.
A great way to instill in beginners a love for metal processing by forging, giving the first lessons in craftsmanship right at the exhibition. “The Blacksmith Talisman” is an exhibition where everyone had the opportunity to try their hand and feel the changes in the material under their own hammer blows.

Exhibitions of blacksmithing are becoming a good tradition. In September 2015, the exhibition “Forge of Happiness” was opened for the 4th time as part of the “Indian Summer” festival. Master classes were also held here.

Numerous books that tell about various technologies of cold and hot forging, casting, forge welding, and technologies for creating decorative elements will help beginners master all the intricacies of the science of metal processing.

Books can tell you a lot, but still, blacksmithing, just like in the old days, is passed from hand to hand from master to student.

It has its pros and cons, restrictions related to time, the ability to move to study, and so on, if you are interested in institutions, follow the following link.

Option 2 - get a job as a blacksmith's apprentice

Recently I received a letter from a visitor to a site about blacksmithing; it concerned training to become a blacksmith. Or rather, where to learn blacksmithing. It is clear that people are interested in forging and there are people who want to work as blacksmiths. So I decided to write this post about where to find blacksmithing training. I think that my answer to the letter can help not only Andrey, but also everyone who wants to become a blacksmith.

I don’t have much time to write, so I’m quoting the correspondence.

Hello, Alexey Valerievich.

I really like working with metal, but unfortunately, it is very difficult to master this craft.

We have a big request for you - can you tell me where I can study to become a blacksmith and master artistic forging? Do they accept students in this specialty?

Thanks in advance, best regards.

I'm glad that there are people who want to become blacksmiths. Answered:

Hello Andrei!

I received a letter from you with a question and am happy to answer.

Regarding training to become a blacksmith, if you are interested in a specific educational institution, then I can hardly help you, since I don’t even know where you live or in what region. But I’ll tell you a more practical way: find a forge in your area and try to get a job as a blacksmith’s apprentice. Even if it’s for a low salary. This is what I did 12 years ago and I don’t regret it. It's much more practical than learning theory. You can work with masters of their craft and learn various subtleties not only from their lips, but also by observing how they work.

And if there are no forges in your area (although then, even more so, there are no educational institutions for forging) - then learn yourself, for example, together with me on my website. After all, I myself am mastering artistic forging at home, having some experience as an industrial blacksmith and very little experience in artistic blacksmithing. I write about my business on a blog, and skilled blacksmiths often come to my website and also share their experience.

Option 3 - self-taught

If the first and second options do not suit you, are undesirable or impossible, then there is a third option - learn yourself from books and the Internet.

In fact, making a forge is not difficult. If you wish, you can forge something by setting up a place in the garage, shed, or under a canopy. See. If you have a dacha or a private house, then you can do forging in the yard. , get a hammer and go ahead. The blacksmith makes many devices himself, and you can make them with the help of and. If you have questions or doubts, ask, we will help with advice.

There is a lot of material on this topic on our website:

• The "" section contains a lot of materials on the theory and practice of blacksmithing.
• The “” section examines in detail the production of specific forged products (tools and artistic forging).
• The “” section teaches the basics of blacksmithing from simple to complex.

If you want to learn forging yourself, equip a forge with your own hands, but are experiencing difficulties and uncertainty, then you can

Forging with your own hands is a rather difficult technological process; for this you need to know the basic techniques for working with a workpiece, as well as the rules of heating and hardening

Blacksmithing is one of the oldest methods of metal processing. However, even in our age of high technology development, it has not lost its significance and is even gaining great popularity.

Forging with your own hands is a rather difficult technological process; for this you need to know at least the basic techniques for working with a workpiece, as well as the rules for heating and hardening the metal. You also need to have an idea of ​​how to use the equipment. What skills do you need to have to make products using the blacksmith method and how to forge metal?

Hot forging includes a large number of techniques used in metal processing. However, the technology itself consists of main stages.

1. Heating the workpiece.
2. Forging.
3. Metal stabilization.
4. Hardening (if necessary).

Each individual stage is of great importance. Incorrectly maintained heating temperature of the workpiece will lead to further damage to the product, the same applies to too rapid cooling.

When forging, you also need to follow the technological process, otherwise the workpiece will simply be damaged. At this stage, many techniques are used depending on what product is being made.

Metal stabilization involves gradual cooling of the finished product. This technological stage promotes normal crystallization of highly heated material. The main task is to prevent damage to the internal structure, the appearance of shells and cracks.

Tempering is used to impart hardness to the finished product by changing the crystal lattice during high temperature heating. Most often in blacksmithing, this stage is carried out when making tools that will experience heavy loads during use. The main requirement for hardening is not to make the metal too brittle (overheat) or, conversely, too soft.

So, how do you forge metal yourself and what techniques are used at each stage of the work?

Heating the workpiece before forging

Usually, for forging steel objects, ready-made blanks are used in the form of cast steel bars of the required size. With your own hands, in this way you can make not too large objects and small tools, so I use a forge for heating.

It is best to start heating the workpiece immediately after casting it, when it has cooled to a dark red color. You can also preheat the material before placing it in the fireplace. Preheating is carried out from the ends to the middle to avoid the appearance of stresses and cracks in the metal structure. In this case, the temperature is maintained within no more than 300 degrees. This indicator is checked by pouring machine oil onto the surface of the blank: if it burns, then the workpiece is moved to the fireplace.

The temperature in the forge is initially set low, gradually increasing over time to the desired limit.

It is a mistaken belief that the more you heat the steel, the better it is forged. When strongly heated, such material actually becomes softer, however, do not forget about processes such as overheating and burning of the metal.

Overheating changes the crystal structure of the workpiece material and during subsequent forging it can simply fall apart into separate fragments.

Overburning changes the chemical properties of steel when more carbon is burned out of its composition.

According to the table, you can understand what temperature limits should be adhered to when heating different types of steel during forging. The degree of heat of a metal is determined by its color spectrum. For example, if the workpiece is painted dazzlingly white, it means it is heated to 1200-1300 degrees. The darker the color of the metal, the colder it is. The photo shows a diagram of the relationship between the color spectrum and temperature.

How to determine heating temperature by color

Forging process

When the workpiece is heated to the required temperature, it should be crimped. This must be done to eliminate various cavities, voids and cracks in the structure of the blank. The process is carried out as follows. The workpiece is pulled out of the forge and its surfaces are passed with hammer blows from the middle to the edges (first the top, and then the bottom).

Before planning the manufacture of things, you should expect that during crimping the workpiece will lose part of its volume in the form of scale. It forms on the surface of the blank, from where it is removed using tools: pliers and brushes.

When the crimping is completed, they move on to the actual forging of the product. In this case, various techniques are used to obtain the desired shape.

In order for thickenings to form on the surface, the method of local precipitation is used. This technique is also used if you need to reduce the length of the workpiece and make it thicker. To do this, the master strikes from above the workpiece located in a vertical plane. In this case, the metal will deform and thicken. It is convenient to do full casing by clamping the heated workpiece in a vice, but you need to hurry, otherwise the metal will cool very quickly from the cold clamping device.

After upsetting, you need to crimp again to give the structure uniformity!

One of the types of precipitation is landing. It is used when it is necessary to obtain thickening on the surface of a product. To do this, the workpiece is heated only at the landing site.

If, on the contrary, it is necessary to lengthen the workpiece, the so-called broaching is carried out. There are three ways in which this technique can be done. The simplest is broaching on flat strikers. To do this, the workpiece is heated. Next, they pass it with a hammer along its entire length and, turning it 90 degrees, do the same job. They try to carry out the reception in one warm-up. Quite often they use a subtype of broaching called flattening along the entire length. The main tools are a hammer or sledgehammer.

Sometimes when forging at home you need to make a through or blind hole in the product. In this case, use the firmware technique. The main devices are punches of various sections. In this case, the workpiece is heated and placed on the anvil on top of the round hole. Having installed the punch, they strike it. The firmware can be done on one side or on both.

To divide a workpiece or product into parts, a chopping method is used. The metal is heated to a dark red color and, placing it on an anvil, three-quarters of its thickness is cut with a blacksmith’s chisel. After which the forging is turned over and the remainder is chopped using the same tools.

I also quite often use the method of bending blanks in blacksmithing. Simple forms are obtained using an anvil with holes as the main device. More complex forged elements are formed by bending the blanks on various templates.

Another technique often used in artistic forging is twisting. At the same time, the workpiece is heated and rigidly fixed in a vice, the other end is turned using a crank as the main equipment.

When the product is ready, the metal needs to be stabilized.

Stabilization

Very rapid cooling of the material of the forged product will lead to uneven crystallization of the metal. As a result, tensions, cavities and voids are formed in the structure. To avoid such negative aspects, when forging metal at home is completed, you need to set a gradual and uniform cooling.

Small forgings can be left in the hearth of the forge, where the metal will cool along with the furnace. More massive forged products can be covered with hot coals and sprinkled with ash.

The more massive the product, the smoother the cooling should be.

You can watch the forging process with your own hands using the example of a video forging a Yakut knife

It is better to learn forging for beginners from an experienced master. There are many different techniques and methods for such processing and manufacturing of things that a specialist can show. Moreover, in the absence of practice, it is quite difficult to follow the technologies of heating and stabilizing the metal, without which the product either will not turn out or will be of poor quality.

However, hand forging is not so complicated and you can quickly learn how to make the simplest things yourself.

What can you add to the material in this article? If you have experience learning forging at home, share it in the comments section of this article.

Forge. This is the place where the master does all the blacksmithing work. It is optimal when the forge is a separate spacious room, 10-15 meters away from the home. But if there is no such room, then first you can build a covered shed in the yard and equip it with the most necessary equipment. The most necessary equipment includes a forge, an anvil, a table for performing blacksmith work, a bench, a stand or rack for blacksmith and metalwork tools, as well as the blacksmith and metalwork tool itself, and a cold water tank.

A sharpener, a welding machine, and pressure presses can be useful in a forge. The basis of the forge equipment is the forge. In fact, a forge is the simplest furnace for heating forging blanks and warming up forgings during operation. The fuel for the rut is coal or charcoal. Unlike a conventional furnace, the forge has an open firebox and forced air supply, carried out using various devices.

In ancient forges, monumental structures were installed - stationary forges. First, they placed a waist-high wooden frame and filled it tightly with burnt earth, sand, broken small stones or clay. A recess (furnace) was made in the middle of the log house and a thick cast iron or copper pipe (tuyere) was brought to it from the side. The other end of the tuyere was connected to the bellows (Fig. 81). Air from the bellows was supplied through a tuyere into the furnace to the coals burning in it. This process is blowing. The stronger the air flow, the higher the temperature in the crucible became. Classic forges were also made of brick.

If you have the opportunity, build a forge. It will last a very long time. Of course, a modern horn, even if it is built according to the classical principle, will look a little different.

The forge in the forge is installed in the center of the wall opposite the entrance. The table pedestal is made in the same way as a classic forge. This can be a wooden frame, or a brick pedestal, filled from the inside with sand, clay, etc. The optimal height of the table is 70-80 cm, and the dimensions of the sides reach 1.5-2 meters and even more if the table is installed with the expectation of manufacturing large products like fences. The surface of the forge table is made of refractory brick, reinforced concrete, and sawn stone. In the center of the table there is a hearth or a so-called forge nest. It can have a round or square shape measuring 20x20 or 40x40 cm with a depth of 10-15 cm. A lance is inserted into this hole. It is a thick-walled tank, covered with a hearth board on top. A pipe is welded to the side of the tuyere - a piece of pipe made of refractory steel. The opposite end of the pipe is connected to a discharge device (fan, discharge socket of a vacuum cleaner, compressor or bellows). Air from the blower is supplied through a pipe into the tuyere body, and then enters the combustion zone through the hearth board. The type of flame depends on the configuration of the holes in the hearth board. Thus, evenly spaced round holes produce a cylindrical torch flame, and slotted holes (including a conventional stove grate) produce a narrow and elongated flame.

Light up the forge as follows. A thin layer of coal is poured into the furnace on a hearth board, and a layer of shavings and small wood chips moistened with kerosene is placed on top. Some dry firewood is placed on top. Another layer of coal is poured onto the burning wood and blowing begins. As soon as the coal is red hot, you can begin heating the workpieces. Periodically, the coal is sprinkled with water to form a crust on top, which retains the high temperature inside the burning mass. Ash from burnt wood and coal spills into the tuyere. The tuyere is periodically cleaned of ash. To do this, the bottom of the tuyere is equipped with a so-called bottom cover.

Pedestal The forging table can be assembled from steel corners, connecting them by welding or bolts so that the upper corners for the table plane are turned edges up. A thick iron sheet with a hole for the tuyere is placed in the resulting frame. The rest of the table space is covered with brick or other material, as in the first case.

To heat workpieces, you can also use blowtorch. It is installed in a pre-prepared hole, and a small stove made of refractory bricks is placed next to it. You can build a structure in which the blowtorch will be located under the furnace, giving the blacksmith more freedom to move. To do this, the bricks are placed on their ends, a grate is laid on them, and four bricks are installed on it in the form of a furnace. Coal is poured into this recess. The blowtorch is placed under the grate using a pipe. In this case, the blanks are placed in the gap between the bricks. This oven can only be used for small-sized workpieces.

It is imperative to make a furnace casing over the forge. This is a regular hood for removing harmful gases generated during operation. The dimensions of the lower inlet of the casing correspond to the dimensions of the forging table. Strengthen the hood at a height of 50-60 cm from the working surface of the table. In general, the lower the hood is installed, the more efficiently it works. If your height allows you to lower the hood inlet level, do so. The best option for a furnace casing is a hood fixed with a metal frame, made of refractory brick. You can make a casing from sheet iron with a thickness of 0.5-1.5 mm. The main disadvantage of metal casings is rapid burnout (oxidation under the influence of high temperature and gases with subsequent destruction).

The best option is to set up a forge in a separate room. As already mentioned, the forge is installed in the center of the wall opposite the entrance. The anvil is placed at a distance of 1-2 meters from the forge, so that its conical horn is located to the left of the blacksmith, who stands with his back to the forge. There should be enough space around the anvil for the blacksmith to move freely and, if necessary, for the hammer to work. A barrel of water is placed between the anvil and the forge to cool the forgings and tools. Water is also useful in times of fire danger. To keep the water in the barrel constantly cold, 2/3 of it is buried in the ground. There should be a table for blacksmith tools next to the anvil. To make it take up less space, it can be made two-tiered - a tool that is used frequently is placed on the upper plane, and a less commonly used one is placed on the lower shelf. A forge vice is placed on the adjacent wall, on which upsetting, bending, and twisting are carried out. Next to the vice is a mechanic's workbench. In the corners there are boxes with coal, firewood, sand.

Materials. The main material that blacksmiths use in their business is steel. It is well known that steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Based on the proportion of carbon in the alloy, steels are divided into low-carbon (up to 0.25% carbon), medium-carbon (0.25-0.6%) and high-carbon (0.6-2%). Increasing the carbon content of steel increases its hardness and hardenability, but reduces its ductility and ductility. To improve the physical and mechanical properties of steels, various additives are introduced into them. These can be nickel, arsenic, copper, phosphorus, sulfur, etc. Moreover, the content of additives in the alloy is clearly controlled, because if a certain threshold is exceeded, instead of improving quality, you can get the opposite effect. It is especially important not to allow the content of sulfur and phosphorus in the alloy to exceed. The less these impurities are in the steel, the higher its quality.

Depending on the chemical composition, steels are divided into carbon and alloy. Carbon steels, in turn, are divided into ordinary quality steels, high-quality carbon steels and special-purpose steels. Due to its ductility, ordinary quality steels with a carbon content of 0.1 to 0.3% are well suited for forging work. These steels weld well and are easy to cut. Markings of such steels are St0, St1, St2. In principle, the quality of steels St3-St6 is quite satisfactory. They are most often found in the form of wire, rods, strips and sheets. The most accessible source of needed steel is scrap metal. At the same time, keep in mind that construction reinforcement is most often made from St0 steel, welding structures from St1 steel, and railway spikes, bolts, nuts, and nails from St2 and St3 steel.

The name “carbon quality steels” implies a reduced content of harmful impurities and, as a result, increased quality and improved mechanical properties. The best quality steels for forging are St10 and St15 (0.10 and 0.15% carbon, respectively).

Various tools are made from carbon tool steels. The marking of these steels begins with the letter “U”, followed by numbers indicating the carbon content in tenths of a percent. For example, steel grade U9 contains 0.9% carbon. Tool steel can also be used in products, the material for which is some kind of tool that has become unusable.

Alloy steels necessarily contain additives aimed at imparting certain qualities to the steel. For example, the already mentioned nickel gives steel strength and hardness and increases corrosion resistance. Tungsten and vanadium increase heat resistance and inhibit the formation of scale when heating steel to high temperatures. Silicon gives elasticity. Alloy steels, depending on the properties acquired as a result of alloying, are used in structures that must withstand severe physical-mechanical or physical-chemical loads. A variety of instruments are also made from them. Of the non-ferrous metals in blacksmithing, mainly copper and its alloys (brass, bronze), as well as aluminum and its alloys are used.

It’s good if you get your hands on factory materials with markings. What if you have to work with metal recycled from scrap metal? How to determine its brand? All you need is a sharpening wheel. The fact is that small metal shavings formed when processing metal on a grinding wheel produce a sheaf of sparks, completely unique for each metal (alloy). The characteristic features of the sparks determine what kind of metal they are dealing with. Since the appearance of copper, brass, bronze, aluminum and its alloys is easily recognizable, only determining the grade of steel can cause difficulties.

Low-carbon steel, containing approximately 0.1-0.2% carbon, emits sparks from the grinding wheel, fanning out in the form of slightly curved lines of yellow-straw color with a thickening in the middle and at the end. As the carbon content increases, the basic pattern of sparks remains the same, but more and more bright stars appear around the fan. For example, a sheaf of sparks from steel with a carbon content of 0.5% looks like the same fan of slightly curved lines, but in the area of ​​​​the middle thickening a small number of sparks are separated from the sheaf, which sparkle as individual stars. High-carbon steel, including tool steel, produces sparks with abundant stars.

The table below summarizes the characteristics of sparks and sprockets of the steel grades most commonly used in forging.

The spark colors of carbon steels range from straw yellow to light yellow. Chromium steel has long sparks. Short thin branches of sparks with stars at the end fly off from the main branch in different directions. The color of chromium steel sparks is orange-red. Tungsten steel sparks are intermittent, with small bulges at the end.

Determination of steel grade by spark

steel grade	Shapes of sparks and stars
St2, St3	The threads of sparks are thin, with thickenings in the middle and at the end, there are practically no branches
St4	The threads are thicker than those of St2 and St3 steels, there are few branches
St5, St10	The threads are sharp, with thickenings in the middle and at the end, few branches, a few stars
St15, St20	The threads are of the same shape as St5, St10, but there are more branches and stars
St20, St30	The ends of the threads become thin, without thickening, branches and a lot of stars
U12	Small dense stars
St40, St45	The ends of the threads are sharp, the threads are highly branched, the stars are round, thick

The main element of each forge is a forge in which the material is heated so that its hardness is reduced many times and gives way to plasticity. The blacksmith can only fashion the desired object from the pliable material.

Depending on the chemical composition, each material has its own forging temperature, or rather temperature range. The upper limit of this range is the temperature to which the workpiece is heated in the forge before forging. Then they proceed directly to forging and continue to work with the heated workpiece until it cools down to the temperature of the lower limit of the forging temperature range. In this temperature range, the plasticity of the metal is quite high, therefore, the metal is easier to process and, what is also important, the internal structure of the metal does not suffer from the mechanical effects of forging tools.

It is very important to be able to correctly determine the heating temperature of the workpiece before starting processing. Do not forget that overheated metal significantly loses its ductility. Severe overheating can lead to burnout of the metal. Burnt metal simply collapses during forging. If you start forging a workpiece heated to a temperature below the forging temperature, cracks will form on it.

Since ancient times, blacksmiths have learned to determine the temperature of forgings (blanks) by color. Observe the metal being heated. As it heats up, it dresses in different colors. At first, tarnished colors pass through, replacing each other. Following the last color of tarnish, the first color of incandescence appears. With further heating, all the colors of incandescence pass one after another. At maximum temperatures, the color of incandescence is white with shades of varying brightness.

The tables below show the temperatures corresponding to the different colors of steel tarnish and heat.

Temperature colors and corresponding temperatures for steel

Tarnish color	Temperature, ° C
Pale yellow
Light yellow
Yellow
Dark yellow
Brown
Brown-red
Violet
Dark blue
Light blue
Grey

Heat colors and corresponding temperatures for steel

Heat color	Temperature, ° C
Dark brown (visible in the dark)	530-570
Brown-red	580-650
Dark red	650-730
Dark cherry red	730-770
Cherry red	770-800
Light cherry red	800-830
Light red	830-900
Orange	900-1050
Dark yellow	1050-1150
Straw yellow	1150-1200
Citric	1200-1400
White (various brightness)	1400

A billet of St1 steel is removed from the forge and forged at a temperature of 1300° (hereinafter the temperature is indicated on the Celsius scale), that is, at the threshold of white heat. They stop forging it when the temperature drops to 800°. Outside this temperature range, steel is much less ductile, resists deformation, and may fracture. The best period for forging steel St2 is from 1200° -850°, for U7, U8, U9 - from 1150° -800°. Steels U10, U12, U13 are forged in the range 1130° -870°.

Tools. Anvil- main support device. The upper horizontal plane is called the clypeus or face. The anvil frame must be hardened and well ground. All basic blacksmithing work is performed on it. The side edges of the anvil are made at an angle of 90° to the casing. The edges of these edges should be quite sharp, without chipping. The ribs are used to distribute and bend the material. An important element of the anvil is the horn. There are hornless and one-horned anvils, but the most universal is the two-horned anvil with a conical horn and tail. The conical horn is designed for radius bending of rods and strips. It is also used to roll out and weld blanks in the shape of rings, forge spirals and perform many other operations. The tail, located opposite the horn, has the shape of a pyramid. It is used for bending and straightening closed rectangular workpieces.

A round hole with a diameter of 15-25 mm was made on the platband in the area of ​​the horn for punching holes in the workpieces. At the tail on the casing there is a square hole measuring 35x35 mm. Various backing tools are installed in it to facilitate distributing, chopping, and shaping workpieces.

To attach the anvil to the stand, there are paws on its lower plane. A massive hardwood stump with a diameter of 60-70 cm and the same height can serve as a stand (chair) for a stationary anvil. Using staples, the anvil is attached to the stand.

An unstable stand will make it difficult to work on the anvil. According to the advice of the experts, it is better to dig it into the ground to a depth of at least 0.5 meters and compact the earth well around the stand. If you are unable to find a suitable stump, replace it with a wooden or metal barrel tightly packed with sand or earth. Place a thick wooden beam on top and attach an anvil to it. For initial familiarization work, you can replace the anvil with a piece of rail or a thick metal plate.

Percussion instrument. The main tool in the forge is the percussion. These are handbrake hammers (hereinafter referred to as handbrake hammers), war hammers and sledgehammers.

Handbrake- the main tool of a blacksmith. The master forges small products with it and supervises the work of the hammer, if the work is carried out in pairs. Using a handbrake, the blacksmith shows the hammerman where to strike with a hammer or sledgehammer. Depending on the workpiece being processed, handbrake handles weighing from 0.2 to 5 kg are used.

War Hammers- heavy hammers weighing 10-12 kg. The working part of the hammer is the head. The lower working surface of the head is called the striker or striker, the upper - the back. The rears are wedge-shaped one-sided, two-sided longitudinal, two-sided transverse. The wedge-shaped back accelerates the hot metal along or across the axis of the workpiece. Double-sided longitudinal and transverse tails make cutting metal easier.

Sledgehammer- a heavy hammer weighing up to 15 kg - used for heavy forging work that requires heavy blows. The hammers of the sledgehammer are flat in shape.

The handles of percussion instruments are made of durable deciduous trees (birch, beech, hornbeam, ash). Old masters preferred handles made of rowan. The length of the handbrake handle can reach a length of 60 cm. The length of the hammer handle, depending on its weight and the height of the hammer, reaches 90 cm. It is very important that the handles are smooth and free of cracks and burrs. Otherwise, you may seriously injure your hand. Particular attention should be paid to the fastening of the handle with the head. The hole in the head intended for the handle is called the insertion. After the handle is inserted, it is wedged (a wedge is driven in). The most reliable are metal wedges. They must be driven in to a depth equal to 2/3 of the width of the hammer or sledgehammer head at a slight angle to the axis of the handle.

Let's take a closer look at the striking technique. Elbow (or light) blows are applied by moving the arms from the elbow. The forearm is not involved in this strike. Shoulder (or middle) blows are applied by moving the arms from the shoulder. The highest point of the hammer's trajectory is above the hammer's head at the height of outstretched arms. With overhead (or strong) blows, the hammer describes a full circle in the air (through the bottom, over the back, over the head, striking). Overhead blows are applied when forging large workpieces or during forge welding of large parts.

Significantly simplify the work, and often expand the range of possibilities of the blacksmith, various backing tools. Depending on whether the backing tool is installed on the anvil (in a square hole near the tail) or under the hammer (that is, above the upper surface of the workpiece), the backing tool is divided into lower and upper. Let's start getting acquainted with this tool with the devices that are placed under the hammer.

Blacksmith chisels used by blacksmiths in many operations. They differ in different ways. Firstly, they are divided into chisels for cutting heated and cold workpieces. Chisels for chopping cold workpieces are more massive, their knife sharpening angle is 60°. For chopping hot workpieces, chisels with a thinner knife are used. The sharpening angle of such a knife is 30°. Chisels are also differentiated depending on the shape of the knife. Chisels with a straight knife are used for both transverse and longitudinal cutting. The knife of the chisel for transverse cutting is located parallel to the axis of the handle, the knife of the chisel for longitudinal cutting is perpendicular to the axis of the handle. Straight knives are made with single-sided and double-sided sharpening. Chisels with one-sided sharpening produce a cut with a strictly perpendicular end. Cuts with inclined ends are made with chisels with double-sided sharpening. Sometimes the chisel knife is left dull. Such chisels are used to decorate the surface of a product with ornaments.

To cut out shaped elements from sheets of metal, chisels with a certain curvature of the knife in the horizontal plane are used. If a shaped decoration is cut from a metal block or other voluminous workpiece, use shaped chisels with a double curvature of the knife.

Punchers Designed for punching holes and various recesses in thin workpieces. The working part of the punch is called the bit. The beards can be round, oval, square, rectangular or shaped. The choice of punch depends on the shape you want to give to the hole or recess. For the same purposes, but for bulky workpieces, piercings or special punches are used. Pusons differ from punches in that they do not have handles and are held with pliers.

Ironing irons. After forging, the surface of the product is far from perfectly smooth. To level it, smoothers are used. When leveling large surfaces, it is more convenient to use flat trowels with a working surface of 10x10 cm. For small flat surfaces, a flat trowel with a working surface of 5x5 cm is sufficient. To level radius surfaces, use trowels with a cylindrical working surface.

Rolling out. The main role of rolling is to accelerate the distribution (elongation) of hot metal along and across the axis of the workpiece. In addition, they are used for knocking out cylindrical grooves on workpieces. You can also use rollers to apply a pattern.

The backing tool is installed in a square hole on the anvil frame. For this purpose, it is equipped with a square-shaped shank, which is easily installed in the hole.

Sweeps. One of the methods of cutting blanks uses undercuts. The sharpening angle of the cutting blade is 60°. The workpiece is placed on the cutting blade and, hitting it with a handbrake, the required part is cut off.

Tapered mandrels and forks. To expand the holes in the workpiece and distribute the rings, conical mandrels and forks are used when performing bending operations. Over time, an experienced craftsman accumulates a whole arsenal of various mandrels that simplify forging slopes, forge welding, and bending complex profiles. To begin with, you won't need them. As you gain experience, you will determine which ones you need and make them yourself. In general, there is no need to be intimidated by a representative set of tools. Not all of them will be needed from the very first minutes of work as a blacksmith. To master the basic techniques of blacksmithing, you need a very limited list of tools.

Another group - paired backing tool. It is called paired because it includes a lower tool, which, like a regular lower tool, is inserted into a square hole on the anvil platband, and an upper tool, which is placed on top of the workpiece and held by the handle (like a regular upper tool). This group includes crimps and tamps.

Crimping and tamping help to give the already forged workpiece the correct cylindrical, rectangular or multifaceted shape. The workpiece is placed between them. Tampers are used for longitudinal and transverse distribution of metal.

Nail plate needed to make nails, bolts and rivets for connecting product parts. This plate is a beam with special holes of different sizes. Don't forget that connections made with bolts and rivets made from the same metal as the main product look much neater.

Plate-shape can become a good assistant to a blacksmith. A steel plate-form on four side faces of which there are recesses of various configurations and sizes. On the end surfaces of the slab, through holes of standard shapes (round, square, triangular and others) and shaped holes are made. The length of the side edges of the slab can reach 40 cm, the thickness of the slab - 15-20 cm. Holes on the end surfaces are used to punch holes of the same shape in the workpieces being processed. The plate is placed under the workpiece, which is processed with punches or punches. The recesses on the side faces of the plate are used for forging a variety of shaped elements and successfully replace a whole set of backing dies.

Ticks. Blacksmiths work with hot metal. When processing, the hot workpiece must be held in a certain position. If one hand is enough to work with any tool, the workpiece can be held with the other hand using pliers. In order for the pliers to tightly fit products of various configurations, their jaws are given different shapes. For example, it is more convenient to hold a cylindrical workpiece using pliers with jaws in the form of half rings. According to the shape of the sponges, pliers are divided into longitudinal, transverse, longitudinal-transverse and special. If the size of the pliers' jaws turns out to be slightly larger than the size of the workpiece, this trick is used. The jaws of the pliers are heated in a forge, they grab the workpiece and press the jaws into the shape of the workpiece with blows of the handbrake. Blacksmith pliers should be lightweight, with long, springy handles. To securely hold the workpieces while working, craftsmen tighten the handles of the pliers with a special clamping ring (spread).

Vise. To work with the tool, both hands of the blacksmith must be free, so a chair vice is used to clamp hot workpieces. Such a vice is secured with massive bolts or screws to the main support of the bench. A mechanic's workbench is necessary in any forge, since in order to bring a forged product to its finished form, you often have to work on it with a metalworking tool. You gradually became familiar with the basic locksmith tools while studying the first chapter. You can only add a sharpener. It is best to drill holes to connect thick, hard forged workpieces using a drill press rather than by hand. It is most convenient to position the vice so that the distance between the floor and the upper level of the jaws is 90-100 cm.

Auxiliary equipment. During the work process, it is often necessary to make various measurements. To do this, it’s good to stock up on steel rulers (25, 50, 100 cm long), calipers and squares in advance.

For caring for the forge a forge will be required shovel, poker, broom for cleaning the forge from coal and slag dust, some kind of hand-held sprayer for sprinkling coal when sintering the dome over the hearth, coal tongs, a crowbar for breaking through the sintered coal (if the fuel of your forge is coal). It is mandatory that in the forge, in addition to a container with water, there is also a box with dry sand.

The main supporting forging tool is anvil weighing 100-150 kg, made of carbon steel. Anvils are divided into hornless, one-horned and two-horned. The most convenient is the two-horned one (Fig. 2). The upper surface of the anvil is called the clypeus, or face, and the lower surface is called the base. The top and casing must be hardened and polished, free from cracks and dents. Otherwise, marks may remain on the hot workpiece. On the front surface of the anvil there is a square through hole, usually 30X30 mm in size, for installing tools and accessories. The pointed part of the anvil (horn) is used for bending and straightening rings, and the opposite flat part (tail) is used for bending at right angles.

There are several ways to attach anvils (Fig. 3). The traditional method is to mount it on a wooden block - a chair. For this, blanks with a diameter of 500-600 mm of hard wood are used - oak, birch, etc. The height of the chair together with the anvil is about 75 cm, i.e. the face of the anvil should be at the level of the thumb of the blacksmith's lowered hand. If it is not possible to purchase a solid deck, then the chair can be made from separate bars fastened with steel hoops. The anvil is secured to the chair with U-shaped brackets. The chair can be made from a steel angle measuring at least 70X70 mm. A rubber gasket with a thickness of at least 8 mm must be placed between the steel chair and the anvil. The anvil is secured to the chair with U-shaped steel stepladders. The method of fastening it in a home forge is not practical to use on a concrete base.

Shperak They are also a supporting forging tool, but with less mass, and have a variety of shapes. They are usually made by blacksmiths themselves for a certain type of work (Fig. 4.)

The methods for attaching shperaks are also varied: they can be inserted into a square hole in an anvil, clamped in a forge vice, or hammered into a wooden chair.

Basic drums tools - a sledgehammer, a handbrake (hammer) and all kinds of shaped hammers (Fig. 5).

Sledgehammer- a large hammer weighing 4-8 kg, used for delivering strong blows and processing large workpieces.

Handbrake- a hand hammer weighing 1-2.5 kg is the main working tool of a blacksmith, since not a single forging operation is complete without its use.

Shaped hammers- This is a large and diverse group of instruments, differing in the mass and shape of the striking parts. They are made by blacksmiths themselves to perform specific jobs.

When making hammers, special attention should be paid to two points: when punching a hole for the handle, you need to ensure that the “edge” has an elliptical shape, that is, it expands from the center to the edges, then when wedging the handle with a wedge diagonally, it is securely fixed in the hammer ; An indispensable condition for the manufacture of a hammer is its balance in mass, i.e., regardless of the linear dimensions of its working parts (head and back), the hole must be in the center of balance, the mass of the head must correspond to the mass of the back (Fig. 6).

To hold and move hot workpieces, pliers are used, which differ in size and also in the shape of the jaws, depending on the shape of the workpieces they hold (Fig. 7). There are also special types of pliers made by a blacksmith for a specific type of work, for example, for holding rivets.

In addition to sledgehammers, handbrake handles and pliers, artistic forging also requires various backing tools.

Chisel And cutting used for cutting metal. Chisels are made of two types - with a thin blade for chopping hot metal and with a thicker one for chopping cold metal. The shape of the working part of the chisels is different - straight, round, hatchet-shaped. Forging chisels have a wooden handle and the undercut is a rectangular shank that fits into the hole of the anvil.

Blacksmith punch (bit)- a tool usually with a square or round working part, used for punching holes in hot workpieces, sometimes used for chasing hot metal. For special work it can be made in any shape.

Rolling out (rolling out)- a tool of various shapes, used to speed up the drawing and flattening of metal.

Tamper (crimp)- a device consisting of two parts - a top and a bottom. The top has a wooden handle, the bottom is inserted into the hole of the anvil. It is used to give the workpiece a round, square or polyhedral shape and simplifies the drawing process.

Ironing board used for smoothing workpieces after forging. The working part is polished. Has a wooden handle.

In addition to the basic blacksmith tools described above, there are many auxiliary devices - various mandrels, tips, bits, etc., made depending on the needs of the blacksmith (Fig. 8). To avoid injuries, it is recommended to make wooden handles of blacksmith tools from high-quality wood - walnut, hornbeam, white acacia. To finalize the product and decorate it, the blacksmith must have a wide range of tools for corrugating, graining, and all kinds of embossing (Fig. 9).

Forge is a device used to heat workpieces. There are many of its designs. For artistic forging, it is best to use open-type forges. They are simple in design and allow you to heat workpieces of any length and shape. Fuel for the furnace - coke, charcoal, anthracite.

The highest quality fuel is charcoal. However, the high consumption when used for the forge and difficulties with acquisition hinder its use. In furnaces of modern designs, it is advisable to use foundry coke, which is not inferior in quality to charcoal, and in some cases exceeds it. The design of a traditional forge used by blacksmiths is shown in Figure 10. Its basis is a table with a hearth and a place for heated workpieces. Table size 1 X 1.5-1.5 X 2 m, the height is arbitrary depending on the height of the blacksmith. It is made from wooden logs or stone. The inside is filled with stone, sand, clay, burnt earth and compacted well. To make a table, you can use brick, concrete, and welded metal structures.

The hearth, or hearth, where the fuel is burned, is lined with refractory bricks or made entirely of fireclay clay. The size of the fireplace in plan is arbitrary and depends on the size of the heated workpieces, but not more than 40 X 40 cm, 10-15 cm deep.

For the nozzle, cast iron bushings or sections of cast iron pipes insulated with fireclay are used.

Air is supplied to the forge using bellows or electric centrifugal fans. It is not advisable to use fur for blowing, since it is a labor-intensive and low-productivity process. To collect and remove smoke and gases, an umbrella made of sheet steel 1-1.5 mm thick is installed above the forge. Typically, the dimensions of the catching part of the umbrella correspond to the dimensions of the table. The cross-section of the smoke channel must be at least 20 X 20 cm. The height of the umbrella depends on the volume of fuel burned, the blowing force and the height of the exhaust pipe. It is selected empirically. However, it is not recommended to raise the umbrella higher than 80 cm above the table level.

The design of a modern stationary forge is shown in Figure 11. A cast iron plate (table) with a hole in the center is inserted on a welded metal structure, into which a removable cast iron forge is inserted, which has a flange connection for connecting an air duct, a bottom cover for removing ash from the ash pan and a place for installation of replaceable grates. The air duct is equipped with a damper to regulate the air supply. Depending on the need to obtain a flame of a certain configuration, grates with holes of various shapes are used. Grate bars with evenly spaced holes produce a wide torch flame that evenly heats the workpiece. For local heating, grates with slot-shaped holes are used.

However, it should be noted that in traditionally designed forges the presence of a rear wall does not make it possible to heat long workpieces, and in modern stationary forges the dimensions of the forge socket do not always allow heating a workpiece of complex shape. The forge shown in Figure 12 does not have these disadvantages. The advantage of its design is the absence of cast factory cast iron parts and ease of manufacture. The supporting frame is welded from a steel angle, the table is made of sheet steel 3-5 mm thick. A hole measuring 30 x 30 cm is cut out in the center of the table, into which an ash pan in the shape of a truncated cone with a bottom cover and a flange for connecting the air duct is welded. The table is lined with refractory bricks, and a hearth board (grid bars) is placed on the ash pit, which can be made from sheet steel 8-10 mm thick. The incoming air cools the board, which protects it from burnout. Over time, due to the temperature difference between the upper and lower surfaces of the hearth board, it warps. However, this defect is easily eliminated by leveling it on an anvil.

The ash chamber and hearth board can also be round in shape. In this case, the grate is made from a steel strip 6-10 mm thick and 30-50 mm wide, which is twisted into a spiral. The gap between the turns should be approximately equal to the thickness of the strip, and the diameter of the grate should be the required dimensions (Fig. 13). The fuel in such a forge is located in one plane. Therefore, the dimensions of the working area (combustion area) can be adjusted within wide limits. The area is limited from the sides by fire-resistant bricks, which are fixed with a cast-iron or steel frame. To obtain flames of various configurations, cast iron caps with holes of various shapes are used, as in the previously described grates. Due to the fact that this forge design does not have a forge socket, there must always be fuel between the hearth and the workpiece. If the incoming oxygen in the air does not have time to burn out in the coal layer, this leads to the formation of a large amount of scale, burnout of the metal, and deterioration of its plastic and physical properties.

The efficiency of open forges is low - 2-5%. Therefore, in some cases, closed furnaces are built or so-called stoves are used (Fig. 14). The stove is a series of refractory bricks that limit the combustion zone (Fig. 15). Windows are left at the front and back for loading workpieces. They are also covered with brick on top. If the dimensions of the stove are larger than the dimensions of the brick, then a metal sheet can be used as a ceiling. When burning coal, due to the process of slag formation, a layer of sintered coal is formed above the combustion site. This property of coal is used by blacksmiths. Under such a natural cover, parts heat up faster and oxidize less.

In addition to stationary forge designs, portable ones are widespread. Small size, the ability to transport, and the relative ease of manufacturing are their undoubted advantages for use in a home workshop. However, it should be taken into account that a portable forge is not designed for heating large workpieces, but it is quite sufficient for the manufacture of tools and small forged products. The design of a portable forge is the same as a modern one with a cast iron hearth or hearth board, only smaller in size (Fig. 16). Air is supplied from a fan rotated by a foot pedal.

There are designs with manual fan drive through a multi-stage gearbox. If the forge will be used in a workshop, it is recommended to also use an electric fan, and if the need to heat the metal arises from time to time, then the simplest heating structures can be used to make building brackets, hinges, etc. (Fig. 17) . For example, a piece of steel pipe of the required diameter with a welded bottom or a metal bucket is lined with refractory bricks and coated with fireclay (fireproof) clay so that the recess has the shape of a cone. At the level of the top of the cone, a piece of cast iron pipe (tuyere) is built in, to which the vacuum cleaner pipe is connected. Instead, you can use a blowtorch, then the diameter of the tuyere should be slightly larger than the diameter of the blowtorch nozzle. A piece of cast iron pipe is placed at the same level as the blowtorch. This design can be improved by using cast iron corner pipes for blowtorches (Fig. 18). To increase the power of a forge made of brick, it is recommended to use two blowtorches (Fig. 19).

In the home workshop, a chair vice is also used - a clamping forging tool designed for clamping cold and hot workpieces, as well as holding devices when performing various forging operations. In addition to the vice, clamping tools include all kinds of wrenches, keys, etc., used for twisting, curling and other operations (Fig. 20). In addition to the sledgehammer, the home workshop may also have other impact tools - various devices that replace the blacksmith's assistant - the hammer (Fig. 21). Foreign sources provide designs for foot-driven hammers (Fig. 22).

In the absence of a hammer, i.e. when working “with one hand,” it becomes necessary to somehow hold the workpiece. Holding pliers with a workpiece in one hand and a striking tool in the other, the blacksmith is unable to hold the backing tool. In such cases, a rope loop is sometimes used, which is used to clamp the workpiece on the anvil using a pedal made from a board (Fig. 23). If the dimensions of the anvil mirror allow, an eccentric clamp can be used to fix the workpiece, which allows the blacksmith to free his hands and perform other necessary operations (Fig. 24).

If there is a need to manufacture identical elements (curls, meanders, etc.), use a steel bending plate with holes into which rods are inserted according to a given pattern and the heated workpiece is bent around them (Fig. 25). The slab is placed in a frame made of steel angles, which is preferably mounted on a rigid base or placed on an anvil, fixing it in a square hole.

In a forge, it is desirable to have a forge mold, which is a massive slab with holes and streams. The heated workpiece is placed on the appropriate place on the plate and given the required shape with hammer blows (Fig. 26).

Testing and measuring instruments used in blacksmithing are divided into universal, special and templates.

Universal tools include rulers, tape measures, and calipers. To control perpendicularity, use squares with an angle of 90°. Using a caliper, measure the external and internal dimensions of the workpieces.

Special tools and devices for measuring forgings during the forging process include forging calipers and bore gauges. Forging calipers are used to measure the lengths and diameters of forgings, a bore gauge is used to determine the internal size (Fig. 27). In addition to the above tools, various templates are used in artistic forging to control the overall length, as well as the main dimensions and shape of the workpiece.

Shaped templates distinguish between contour and profile. In addition to them, shrinkage templates are also used to measure the linear dimensions of workpieces, taking into account the shrinkage of the metal after cooling.

In a blacksmith's workshop, it is also desirable to have tools and equipment that significantly facilitate the work and make it possible to use new techniques for the artistic processing of metals. These include an electric welding machine, a drilling machine, an electric flexible shaft with a set of interchangeable heads, lever shears, etc.